Endocrine System

 

Endocrine System: Overview

•   Acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells

•   Influences metabolic activities by means of hormones transported in the blood

•   Responses occur more slowly but tend to last longer than those of the nervous system

•   Endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands

Endocrine System: Overview

•   Some organs produce both hormones and exocrine products (e.g., pancreas and gonads)

•   The hypothalamus has both neural and endocrine functions

•   Other tissues and organs that produce hormones include adipose cells, thymus, cells in the walls of the small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart

 

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine System Functions

•   Metabolism and tissue maturation

•   Ion regulation

•   Water balance

•   Immune system regulation

•   Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

•   Control of blood glucose and other nutrients

•   Control of reproductive functions

•   Uterine contractions and milk release

Chemical Messengers

•   Hormones: long-distance chemical signals that travel in the blood or lymph

•   Autocrines: chemicals that exert effects on the same cells that secrete them

•   Paracrines: locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them

•   Autocrines and paracrines are local chemical messengers and will not be considered part of the endocrine system

Chemistry of Hormones

•      Two main classes

1. Amino acid-based hormones

•      Amines, thyroxine, peptides, and proteins

2. Steroids

•      Synthesized from cholesterol

•      Gonadal and adrenocortical hormones

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

•      Hormone action on target cells

•          Alter plasma membrane permeability of membrane potential by opening or closing ion channels

•          Stimulate synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules

•          Activate or deactivate enzyme systems

•          Induce secretory activity

•          Stimulate mitosis

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

•          Two mechanisms, depending on their chemical nature

•         Water-soluble hormones (all amino acid–based hormones except thyroid hormone)

•         Cannot enter the target cells

•         Act on plasma membrane receptors

•         Coupled by G proteins to intracellular second messengers that mediate the target cell’s response

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

•           Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones)

•           Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes

Plasma Membrane Receptors and Second-Messenger Systems

•      cAMP signaling mechanism

•      Hormone (first messenger) binds to receptor

•      Receptor activates G protein

•      G protein activates adenylate cyclase

•      Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (second messenger)

•      cAMP activates protein kinases

Plasma Membrane Receptors and Second-Messenger Systems

•      cAMP signaling mechanism

•      Activated kinases phosphorylate various proteins, activating some and inactivating others

•      cAMP is rapidly degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase

•      Intracellular enzymatic cascades have a huge amplification effect

 

Plasma Membrane Receptors and Second-Messenger Systems

•   PIP₂-calcium signaling mechanism

•    Used by some amino acid–based hormones in some tissues

•    Involves a G protein

•    G protein activates phospholipase C enzyme

Plasma Membrane Receptors and Second-Messenger Systems

•    Phospholipase splits membrane phospholipid PIP₂ into two second messengers: diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP₃

•    DAG activates protein kinases; IP₃ triggers release of Ca²⁺

•    Ca²⁺ alters enzymes or channels or binds to the regulatory protein calmodulin

 

 

Intracellular Receptors and Direct Gene Activation

•   Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone

•     Diffuse into their target cells and bind with intracellular receptors

•     Receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus

•     Receptor-hormone complex binds to a specific region of DNA

•     This prompts DNA transcription to produce mRNA

•     The mRNA directs protein synthesis

 

 

Target Cell Specificity

•   Target cells must have specific receptors to which the hormone binds

•    ACTH receptors are only found on certain cells of the adrenal cortex

•    Thyroxin receptors are found on nearly all cells of the body

Target Cell Activation

•   Target cell activation depends on three factors

•         Blood levels of the hormone

•         Relative number of receptors on or in the target cell

•         Affinity of binding between receptor and hormone

Target Cell Activation

•   Hormones influence the number of their receptors

•    Up-regulation—target cells form more receptors in response to the hormone

•    Down-regulation—target cells lose receptors in response to the hormone

Hormones in the Blood

•   Hormones circulate in the blood either free or bound

•     Steroids and thyroid hormone are attached to plasma proteins

•     All others circulate without carriers

•   The concentration of a circulating hormone reflects:

•     Rate of release

•     Speed of inactivation and removal from the body

Hormones in the Blood

•   Hormones are removed from the blood by

•    Degrading enzymes

•    Kidneys

•    Liver

•    Half-life—the time required for a hormone’s blood level to decrease by half

Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells

•   Multiple hormones may interact in several ways

•    Permissiveness: one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present

•    Synergism: more than one hormone produces the same effects on a target cell

•    Antagonism: one or more hormones opposes the action of another hormone

Control of Hormone Release

•   Blood levels of hormones

•         Are controlled by negative feedback systems

•         Vary only within a narrow desirable range

•   Hormones are synthesized and released in response to

•         Humoral stimuli

•         Neural stimuli

•         Hormonal stimuli

Humoral Stimuli

•   Changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulates secretion of hormones

•   Example: Ca²⁺ in the blood

•    Declining blood Ca²⁺ concentration stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)

•    PTH causes Ca²⁺ concentrations to rise and the stimulus is removed

 

Neural Stimuli

•   Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release

•    Sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines

 

Hormonal Stimuli

•   Hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones

•    Hypothalamic hormones stimulate the release of most anterior pituitary hormones

•    Anterior pituitary hormones stimulate targets to secrete still more hormones

•    Hypothalamic-pituitary-target endocrine organ feedback loop: hormones from the final target organs inhibit the release of the anterior pituitary hormones

 

Nervous System Modulation

•   The nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms

•    Example: under severe stress, the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system are activated

•    As a result, body glucose levels rise

The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

•   The pituitary gland (hypophysis) has two major lobes

•       Posterior pituitary (lobe):

•   Pituicytes (glial-like supporting cells) and nerve fibers

•       Anterior pituitary (lobe) (adenohypophysis)

•   Glandular tissue

Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships

•   Posterior lobe

•    A downgrowth of hypothalamic neural tissue

•    Neural connection to the hypothalamus (hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)

•    Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize the neurohormones oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

•    Neurohormones are transported to the posterior pituitary

 

Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships

•   Anterior Lobe:

•     Originates as an out-pocketing of the oral mucosa

•     Hypophyseal portal system

•   Primary capillary plexus

•   Hypophyseal portal veins

•   Secondary capillary plexus

•   Carries releasing and inhibiting hormones to the anterior pituitary to regulate hormone secretion

 

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

•   Growth hormone (GH)

•   Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin

•   Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

•   Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

•   Luteinizing hormone (LH)

•   Prolactin (PRL)

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

•   All are proteins

•   All except GH activate cyclic AMP second-messenger systems at their targets

•   TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH are all tropic hormones (regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands)

Growth Hormone (GH)

•   Produced by somatotrophs

•   Stimulates most cells, but targets bone and skeletal muscle

•   Promotes protein synthesis and encourages use of fats for fuel

•   Most effects are mediated indirectly by insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

Growth Hormone (GH)

•   GH release is regulated by

•    Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)

•    Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH) (somatostatin)

Actions of Growth Hormone

•   Direct action of GH

•    Stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors

•    Mobilizes fats, elevates blood glucose by decreasing glucose uptake and encouraging glycogen breakdown (anti-insulin effect of GH)

Homeostatic Imbalances of Growth Hormone

•   Hypersecretion

•    In children results in gigantism

•    In adults results in acromegaly

•   Hyposecretion

•    In children results in pituitary dwarfism

 

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)

•   Produced by thyrotrophs of the anterior pituitary

•   Stimulates the normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)

•   Regulation of TSH release

•    Stimulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

•    Inhibited by rising blood levels of thyroid hormones that act on the pituitary and hypothalamus

 

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)

•   Secreted by corticotrophs of the anterior pituitary

•   Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)

•   Regulation of ACTH release

•    Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm

•    Internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can alter the release of CRH

Gonadotropins

•   Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

•   Secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary

•   FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production

•   LH promotes production of gonadal hormones

•   Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls

Gonadotropins

•   Regulation of gonadotropin release

•    Triggered by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty

•    Suppressed by gonadal hormones (feedback)

Prolactin (PRL)

•   Secreted by lactotrophs of the anterior pituitary

•   Stimulates milk production

Prolactin (PRL)

•   Regulation of PRL release

•    Primarily controlled by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) (dopamine)

•   Blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy

•   Suckling stimulates PRH release and promotes continued milk production

The Posterior Pituitary

•   Contains axons of hypothalamic neurons

•   Stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin

•   ADH and oxytocin are released in response to nerve impulses

•   Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger mechanism at their targets

Oxytocin

•   Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth by mobilizing Ca²⁺ through a PIP₂-Ca²⁺ second-messenger system

•   Also triggers milk ejection (“letdown” reflex) in women producing milk

•   Plays a role in sexual arousal and orgasm in males and females

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

•   Hypothalamic osmoreceptors respond to changes in the solute concentration of the blood

•   If solute concentration is high

•    Osmoreceptors depolarize and transmit impulses to hypothalamic neurons

•    ADH is synthesized and released, inhibiting urine formation

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

•   If solute concentration is low

•    ADH is not released, allowing water loss

•   Alcohol inhibits ADH release and causes copious urine output

Homeostatic Imbalances of ADH

•    ADH deficiency—diabetes insipidus; huge output of urine and intense thirst

•    ADH hypersecretion (after neurosurgery, trauma, or secreted by cancer cells)—syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

•   Where nervous and endocrine systems interact

•   Hypothalamus regulates secretions of anterior pituitary

•   Posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus

•   Anterior pituitary produces nine major hormones that

•      Regulate body functions

•      Regulate the secretions of other endocrine glands

Pituitary Gland Structure

•   Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): extension of the nervous system via the infundibulum

•      Secretes neurohormones

•   Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

•      Consists of three areas with indistinct boundaries: pars distalis, pars intermedia, pars tuberalis

 

Hypothalamus, Anterior Pituitary, and Target Tissues

Releasing and Inhibiting Hormones

•    Tropins or tropic hormones: hormones that regulate the hormone secretions of  target endocrine tissues. All anterior pituitary hormones are tropins.

•    Releasing hormones:

•      GHRH.  Growth hormone-releasing hormone. Causes the anterior pituitary to release growth hormone.

•      TRH. Thyroid-releasing hormone. Causes the anterior pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

•      CRH. Corticotropin-releasing hormone. Causes anterior pituitary to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone.

•      GnRH. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Causes anterior pituitary to produce FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone).

•      PRH. Prolactin-releasing hormone.  Causes the anterior pituitary to release prolactin.

•    Inhibiting hormones:

•      GHIH. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, somatostatin. Causes the anterior pituitary to decrease release of growth hormone.

•      PIH. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone. Causes the anterior pituitary to decrease release of prolactin.

Hypothalamus, Posterior Pituitary and Target Tissues

 

     

Hormones of Posterior Pituitary: ADH

•             Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Also called vasopressin.

•           Osmoreceptors (specialized neurons of hypothalamus monitor changes in intercellular osmolality (relative concentrations of electrolytes and water). If  the concentration of electrolytes increases or if the concentration of water decreases, then ADH secretion is stimulated.

•           Baroreceptors (specialized neurons found in walls of atria of heart, large veins, carotid arteries, aortic arch) sense changes in blood pressure (BP).  If BP decreases, then ADH secretion is stimulated.

Control of ADH Secretion

Control of Oxytocin Secretion

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

•   Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin

•   Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

•   Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

•   Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

•   Beta endorphins

•   Lipotropins

•   Luteinizing hormone (LH)

•   Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

•   Prolactin

 

Growth Hormone (GH or somatotropin)

Regulation of Insulin Secretion

Growth Hormone Stimulation: functions in regulating growth, tissue maintenance, metabolism

GHRH from hypothalamus causes release of…

Growth hormone from anterior pituitary effects…

Target tissues: most tissues of the body

•    Direct effect: GH binds to receptors on cells and causes changes within the cells. Adipose

•    Indirect effect: causes liver and skeletal muscle to produce somatomedins; e.g., insulinlike growth factors.

•      Insulinlike growth factors: bind to receptors on membranes of target cells. Stimulate growth in cartilage, bone; increased synthesis of proteins in skeletal muscle.

Growth Hormone: Inhibition

TSH and Thyroid Hormones

•   TRH from hypothalamus causes the release of TSH from anterior pituitary which causes secretion and storage of hormones T₃ and T₄ from and within the thyroid gland

•   TSH increases activity of phospholipase that opens Ca²⁺ channels, increasing Ca²⁺ concentration in cells of the thyroid gland

•   T3 and T4 inhibit TRH and TSH secretion

Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone, Endorphins, and Lipotropins

•   ACTH, MSH, endorphins and lipotropins all derived from the same large precursor molecule when stimulated by CRH

•   MSH causes melanocytes to produce more melanin

•   Endorphins act as an analgesic; produced during times of stress.

•   Lipotropins cause adipose cells to catabolize fat

 

LH, FSH, Prolactin

Thyroid Gland

•   Consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median mass called the isthmus

•   Composed of follicles that produce the glycoprotein thyroglobulin

•   Colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of thyroid hormone

•   Parafollicular cells produce the hormone calcitonin

 

Thyroid Hormone (TH)

•   Actually two related compounds

•    T₄ (thyroxine); has 2 tyrosine molecules + 4 bound iodine atoms

•    T₃ (triiodothyronine); has 2 tyrosines + 3 bound iodine atoms

Thyroid Hormone

•   Major metabolic hormone

•   Increases metabolic rate and heat production (calorigenic effect)

•   Plays a role in

•    Maintenance of blood pressure

•    Regulation of tissue growth

•    Development of skeletal and nervous systems

•    Reproductive capabilities

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone

•   Thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen

•   Iodides (I^–) are actively taken into the cell, oxidized to iodine (I₂), and released into the lumen

•   Iodine attaches to tyrosine, mediated by peroxidase enzymes

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone

•   Iodinated tyrosines link together to form T₃ and T₄

•   Colloid is endocytosed and combined with a lysosome

•   T₃ and T₄ are cleaved and diffuse into the bloodstream

 

 

Transport and Regulation of TH

•   T₄ and T₃ are transported by thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs)

•   Both bind to target receptors, but T₃ is ten times more active than T₄

•   Peripheral tissues convert T₄ to T₃

Transport and Regulation of TH

•   Negative feedback regulation of TH release

•    Rising TH levels provide negative feedback inhibition on release of TSH

•    Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) can overcome the negative feedback during pregnancy or exposure to cold

 

Homeostatic Imbalances of TH

•   Hyposecretion in adults—myxedema; endemic goiter if due to lack of iodine

•   Hyposecretion in infants—cretinism

•   Hypersecretion—Graves’ disease

 

Calcitonin

•   Produced by parafollicular (C) cells

•   Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)

•   Inhibits osteoclast activity and release of Ca²⁺ from bone matrix

Calcitonin

•   Stimulates Ca²⁺ uptake and incorporation into bone matrix

•   Regulated by a humoral (Ca²⁺ concentration in the blood) negative feedback mechanism

•   No important role in humans; removal of thyroid (and its C cells) does not affect Ca²⁺ homeostasis

Parathyroid Glands

•   Four to eight tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroid

•   Contain oxyphil cells (function unknown) and chief cells that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone

•   PTH—most important hormone in Ca²⁺ homeostasis

 

Parathyroid Hormone

•   Functions

•    Stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix

•    Enhances reabsorption of Ca²⁺ and secretion of phosphate by the kidneys

•    Promotes activation of vitamin D (by the kidneys); increases absorption of Ca²⁺ by intestinal mucosa

•   Negative feedback control: rising Ca²⁺ in the blood inhibits PTH release

 

Homeostatic Imbalances of PTH

•   Hyperparathyroidism due to tumor

•    Bones soften and deform

•    Elevated Ca²⁺ depresses the nervous system and contributes to formation of kidney stones

•   Hypoparathyroidism following gland trauma or removal

•    Results in tetany, respiratory paralysis, and death

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

•   Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop the kidneys

•   Structurally and functionally, they are two glands in one

•    Adrenal medulla—nervous tissue; part of the sympathetic nervous system

•    Adrenal cortex—three layers of glandular tissue that synthesize and secrete corticosteroids

Adrenal Cortex

•   Three layers and the corticosteroids produced

•    Zona glomerulosa—mineralocorticoids

•    Zona fasciculata—glucocorticoids

•    Zona reticularis—sex hormones, or gonadocorticoids

 

Mineralocorticoids

•   Regulate electrolytes (primarily Na⁺ and K⁺) in ECF

•    Importance of Na⁺: affects ECF volume, blood volume, blood pressure, levels of other ions

•    Importance of K⁺: sets RMP of cells

•   Aldosterone is the most potent mineralocorticoid

•    Stimulates Na⁺ reabsorption and water retention by the kidneys

Mechanisms of Aldosterone Secretion

•        Renin-angiotensin mechanism: decreased blood pressure stimulates kidneys to release renin, triggers formation of angiotensin II, a potent stimulator of aldosterone release

•        Plasma concentration of K⁺: Increased K⁺ directly influences the zona glomerulosa cells to release aldosterone

•        ACTH: causes small increases of aldosterone during stress

•        Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): blocks renin and aldosterone secretion, to decrease blood pressure

 

Homeostatic Imbalances of Aldosterone

•    Aldosteronism—hypersecretion due to adrenal tumors

^•      Hypertension and edema due to excessive Na⁺

•    Excretion of K⁺ leading to abnormal function of neurons and muscle

Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)

•   Keep blood sugar levels relatively constant

•   Maintain blood pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictors

Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)

•   Cortisol is the most significant glucocorticoid

•    Released in response to ACTH, patterns of eating and activity, and stress

•    Prime metabolic effect is gluconeogenesis—formation of glucose from fats and proteins

•    Promotes rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids

Homeostatic Imbalances of Glucocorticoids

•   Hypersecretion—Cushing’s syndrome

•     Depresses cartilage and bone formation

•     Inhibits inflammation

•     Depresses the immune system

•     Promotes changes in cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal function

•   Hyposecretion—Addison’s disease

•     Also involves deficits in mineralocorticoids

•   Decrease in glucose and Na⁺ levels

•   Weight loss, severe dehydration, and hypotension

 

Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)

•   Most are androgens (male sex hormones) that are converted to testosterone in tissue cells or estrogens in females

•   May contribute to

•    The onset of puberty

•    The appearance of secondary sex characteristics

•    Sex drive

Adrenal Medulla

•   Chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)

•   These hormones cause

•    Blood glucose levels to rise

•    Blood vessels to constrict

•    The heart to beat faster

•    Blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle

Adrenal Medulla

•   Epinephrine stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart

•   Norepinephrine influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure

 

Pineal Gland

•   Small gland hanging from the roof of the third ventricle

•   Pinealocytes secrete melatonin, derived from serotonin

•   Melatonin may affect

•     Timing of sexual maturation and puberty

•     Day/night cycles

•     Physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite)

Pancreas

•   Triangular gland behind the stomach

•   Has both exocrine and endocrine cells

•     Acinar cells (exocrine) produce an enzyme-rich juice for digestion

•     Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) contain endocrine cells

•   Alpha (a) cells produce glucagon (a hyperglycemic hormone)

•   Beta (b) cells produce insulin (a hypoglycemic hormone)

 

Glucagon

•   Major target is the liver, where it promotes

•    Glycogenolysis—breakdown of glycogen to glucose

•    Gluconeogenesis—synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates

•    Release of glucose to the blood

Insulin

•   Effects of insulin

•    Lowers blood glucose levels

•    Enhances membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells

•    Participates in neuronal development and learning and memory

•    Inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Insulin Action on Cells

•   Activates a tyrosine kinase enzyme receptor

•   Cascade leads to increased glucose uptake and enzymatic activities that

•    Catalyze the oxidation of glucose for ATP production

•    Polymerize glucose to form glycogen

•    Convert glucose to fat (particularly in adipose tissue)

 

Homeostatic Imbalances of Insulin

•   Diabetes mellitus (DM)

•     Due to hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin

•     Three cardinal signs of DM

•   Polyuria—huge urine output

•   Polydipsia—excessive thirst

•   Polyphagia—excessive hunger and food consumption

•   Hyperinsulinism:

•     Excessive insulin secretion; results in hypoglycemia, disorientation, unconsciousness

 

Ovaries and Placenta

•   Gonads produce steroid sex hormones

•   Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone responsible for:

•     Maturation of female reproductive organs

•     Appearance of female secondary sexual characteristics

•     Breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine mucosa

•   The placenta secretes estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Testes

•   Testes produce testosterone that

•    Initiates maturation of male reproductive organs

•    Causes appearance of male secondary sexual characteristics and sex drive

•    Is necessary for normal sperm production

•    Maintains reproductive organs in their functional state

Other Hormone-Producing Structures

•   Heart

•    Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) reduces blood pressure, blood volume, and blood Na⁺ concentration

•   Gastrointestinal tract enteroendocrine cells

•    Gastrin stimulates release of HCl

•    Secretin stimulates liver and pancreas

•    Cholecystokinin stimulates pancreas, gallbladder, and hepatopancreatic sphincter

Other Hormone-Producing Structures

•   Kidneys

•     Erythropoietin signals production of red blood cells

•     Renin initiates the renin-angiotensin mechanism

•   Skin

•     Cholecalciferol, the precursor of vitamin D

•   Adipose tissue

•     Leptin is involved in appetite control, and stimulates increased energy expenditure

Other Hormone-Producing Structures

•   Skeleton (osteoblasts)

•    Osteocalcin prods pancreatic beta cells to divide and secrete more insulin, improving glucose handling and reducing body fat

•   Thymus

•    Thymulin, thymopoietins, and thymosins are involved in normal the development of the T lymphocytes in the immune response

Developmental Aspects

•   Hormone-producing glands arise from all three germ layers

•   Exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, arsenic, dioxin, and soil and water pollutants disrupts hormone function

•   Sex hormones, thyroid hormone, and glucocorticoids are vulnerable to the effects of pollutants

•   Interference with glucocorticoids may help explain high cancer rates in certain areas

Developmental Aspects

•   Ovaries undergo significant changes with age and become unresponsive to gonadotropins; problems associated with estrogen deficiency begin to occur

•   Testosterone also diminishes with age, but effect is not usually seen until very old age

Developmental Aspects

•   GH levels decline with age and this accounts for muscle atrophy with age

•   TH declines with age, contributing to lower basal metabolic rates

•   PTH levels remain fairly constant with age, but lack of estrogen in older women makes them more vulnerable to bone-demineralizing effects of PTH